--- OA_place: publisher OA_type: hybrid PlanS_conform: '1' _id: '21841' abstract: - lang: eng text: The long-standing notion that genotypes map to phenotypes through simple one gene–one trait relationships continues to shape both research in the life sciences and public understanding, with implications for policy and funding priorities. Yet this paradigm is increasingly recognized as inadequate for explaining continuous phenotypic variation and the complex genetic architectures of the genotype–phenotype map. Modern genetics emerged from the early 20th-century synthesis of Mendelian and biometric schools of heredity, with R.A. Fisher demonstrating early on how multiple discrete loci could collectively produce continuous variation. Despite this fundamental insight, Mendelism—with its focus on single genes and standardized genetic backgrounds—became the dominant framework, shaping current genetics research and molecular biology as well as science education. The advent of large-scale genomic data has revealed yet again the limitations of this reductionist approach. Evidence from quantitative genetics now shows that most phenotypes arise from complex networks of many interdependent genes and their dynamic responses to environmental perturbations. Here we trace the historical roots of how Mendelian classical genetics departed from the biometric school to create the current predominant paradigm in genetics, despite fundamentally unresolved issues. Moving on from this one-sided paradigm will require systematic development of integrative, evolutionarily grounded experimental approaches that better capture the multigenic and context-dependent nature of inheritance. Achieving such an extended perspective will require methodological innovation, including advances in large-scale (e.g. automated) phenotyping. Dedicated research programs will be necessary to advance a new era of genetic research into the complex mechanisms underlying phenotypic variation. acknowledgement: We thank a variety of further colleagues for the many inspiring discussions on the nature of heredity, especially the workshops in Berlin. Special thanks also to the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Studies (STIAS) to provide DT the leisure and freedom to write up the first version of this perspective. Thanks also to three reviewers who have helped to improve the manuscript. Two dedicated symposia on the topic were funded by the Max-Planck Society. article_number: iyag024 article_processing_charge: Yes (in subscription journal) article_type: original author: - first_name: Diethard full_name: Tautz, Diethard last_name: Tautz - first_name: Luisa F full_name: Pallares, Luisa F last_name: Pallares - first_name: Leif full_name: Andersson, Leif last_name: Andersson - first_name: Neda full_name: Barghi, Neda last_name: Barghi - first_name: Nicholas H full_name: Barton, Nicholas H id: 4880FE40-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87 last_name: Barton orcid: 0000-0002-8548-5240 - first_name: Rachael full_name: Bay, Rachael last_name: Bay - first_name: Yingguang Frank full_name: Chan, Yingguang Frank last_name: Chan - first_name: Angela full_name: Hancock, Angela last_name: Hancock - first_name: Tobias S full_name: Kaiser, Tobias S last_name: Kaiser - first_name: Daniel full_name: Koenig, Daniel last_name: Koenig - first_name: Zacharias full_name: Kontarakis, Zacharias last_name: Kontarakis - first_name: Miriam full_name: Liedvogel, Miriam last_name: Liedvogel - first_name: Juliette full_name: de Meaux, Juliette last_name: de Meaux - first_name: Magnus full_name: Nordborg, Magnus last_name: Nordborg - first_name: Abraham A full_name: Palmer, Abraham A last_name: Palmer - first_name: Michael full_name: Purugganan, Michael last_name: Purugganan - first_name: Christian full_name: Schlötterer, Christian last_name: Schlötterer - first_name: Karl full_name: Schmid, Karl last_name: Schmid - first_name: Didier Y R full_name: Stainier, Didier Y R last_name: Stainier - first_name: Detlef full_name: Weigel, Detlef last_name: Weigel - first_name: Jochen B W full_name: Wolf, Jochen B W last_name: Wolf - first_name: Dieter full_name: Ebert, Dieter last_name: Ebert - first_name: Greg full_name: Gibson, Greg last_name: Gibson citation: ama: 'Tautz D, Pallares LF, Andersson L, et al. Beyond Mendel: A call to revisit the genotype–phenotype map through new experimental paradigms. Genetics. 2026;232(4). doi:10.1093/genetics/iyag024' apa: 'Tautz, D., Pallares, L. F., Andersson, L., Barghi, N., Barton, N. H., Bay, R., … Gibson, G. (2026). Beyond Mendel: A call to revisit the genotype–phenotype map through new experimental paradigms. Genetics. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/iyag024' chicago: 'Tautz, Diethard, Luisa F Pallares, Leif Andersson, Neda Barghi, Nicholas H Barton, Rachael Bay, Yingguang Frank Chan, et al. “Beyond Mendel: A Call to Revisit the Genotype–Phenotype Map through New Experimental Paradigms.” Genetics. Oxford University Press, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/iyag024.' ieee: 'D. Tautz et al., “Beyond Mendel: A call to revisit the genotype–phenotype map through new experimental paradigms,” Genetics, vol. 232, no. 4. Oxford University Press, 2026.' ista: 'Tautz D, Pallares LF, Andersson L, Barghi N, Barton NH, Bay R, Chan YF, Hancock A, Kaiser TS, Koenig D, Kontarakis Z, Liedvogel M, de Meaux J, Nordborg M, Palmer AA, Purugganan M, Schlötterer C, Schmid K, Stainier DYR, Weigel D, Wolf JBW, Ebert D, Gibson G. 2026. Beyond Mendel: A call to revisit the genotype–phenotype map through new experimental paradigms. Genetics. 232(4), iyag024.' mla: 'Tautz, Diethard, et al. “Beyond Mendel: A Call to Revisit the Genotype–Phenotype Map through New Experimental Paradigms.” Genetics, vol. 232, no. 4, iyag024, Oxford University Press, 2026, doi:10.1093/genetics/iyag024.' short: D. Tautz, L.F. Pallares, L. Andersson, N. Barghi, N.H. Barton, R. Bay, Y.F. Chan, A. Hancock, T.S. Kaiser, D. Koenig, Z. Kontarakis, M. Liedvogel, J. de Meaux, M. Nordborg, A.A. Palmer, M. Purugganan, C. Schlötterer, K. Schmid, D.Y.R. Stainier, D. Weigel, J.B.W. Wolf, D. Ebert, G. Gibson, Genetics 232 (2026). date_created: 2026-05-07T08:53:40Z date_published: 2026-04-01T00:00:00Z date_updated: 2026-05-18T07:51:26Z day: '01' ddc: - '570' department: - _id: NiBa doi: 10.1093/genetics/iyag024 external_id: pmid: - '41701356' file: - access_level: open_access checksum: 5a862c539f9dec4511277ad8927c549c content_type: application/pdf creator: dernst date_created: 2026-05-18T07:48:45Z date_updated: 2026-05-18T07:48:45Z file_id: '21890' file_name: 2026_Genetics_Tautz.pdf file_size: 542844 relation: main_file success: 1 file_date_updated: 2026-05-18T07:48:45Z has_accepted_license: '1' intvolume: ' 232' issue: '4' keyword: - classic genetics - quantitative genetics - genotype–phenotype map language: - iso: eng month: '04' oa: 1 oa_version: Published Version pmid: 1 publication: Genetics publication_identifier: eissn: - 1943-2631 publication_status: published publisher: Oxford University Press quality_controlled: '1' scopus_import: '1' status: public title: 'Beyond Mendel: A call to revisit the genotype–phenotype map through new experimental paradigms' tmp: image: /images/cc_by.png legal_code_url: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode name: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License (CC-BY 4.0) short: CC BY (4.0) type: journal_article user_id: 2DF688A6-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87 volume: 232 year: '2026' ... --- _id: '12949' abstract: - lang: eng text: The classical infinitesimal model is a simple and robust model for the inheritance of quantitative traits. In this model, a quantitative trait is expressed as the sum of a genetic and a non-genetic (environmental) component and the genetic component of offspring traits within a family follows a normal distribution around the average of the parents’ trait values, and has a variance that is independent of the trait values of the parents. Although the trait distribution across the whole population can be far from normal, the trait distributions within families are normally distributed with a variance-covariance matrix that is determined entirely by that in the ancestral population and the probabilities of identity determined by the pedigree. Moreover, conditioning on some of the trait values within the pedigree has predictable effects on the mean and variance within and between families. In previous work, Barton et al. (2017), we showed that when trait values are determined by the sum of a large number of Mendelian factors, each of small effect, one can justify the infinitesimal model as limit of Mendelian inheritance. It was also shown that under some forms of epistasis, trait values within a family are still normally distributed. article_processing_charge: No author: - first_name: Nicholas H full_name: Barton, Nicholas H id: 4880FE40-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87 last_name: Barton orcid: 0000-0002-8548-5240 citation: ama: Barton NH. The infinitesimal model with dominance. 2023. doi:10.15479/AT:ISTA:12949 apa: Barton, N. H. (2023). The infinitesimal model with dominance. Institute of Science and Technology Austria. https://doi.org/10.15479/AT:ISTA:12949 chicago: Barton, Nicholas H. “The Infinitesimal Model with Dominance.” Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 2023. https://doi.org/10.15479/AT:ISTA:12949. ieee: N. H. Barton, “The infinitesimal model with dominance.” Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 2023. ista: Barton NH. 2023. The infinitesimal model with dominance, Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 10.15479/AT:ISTA:12949. mla: Barton, Nicholas H. The Infinitesimal Model with Dominance. Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 2023, doi:10.15479/AT:ISTA:12949. short: N.H. Barton, (2023). contributor: - contributor_type: researcher first_name: Amandine last_name: Veber - contributor_type: researcher first_name: Alison last_name: Etheridge corr_author: '1' date_created: 2023-05-13T09:49:09Z date_published: 2023-05-13T00:00:00Z date_updated: 2025-09-09T13:07:07Z day: '13' ddc: - '576' department: - _id: NiBa doi: 10.15479/AT:ISTA:12949 file: - access_level: open_access checksum: b0ce7d4b1ee7e7265430ceed36fc3336 content_type: application/octet-stream creator: nbarton date_created: 2023-05-13T09:36:33Z date_updated: 2023-05-13T09:36:33Z file_id: '12950' file_name: Neutral identities 16th Jan file_size: 13662 relation: main_file success: 1 - access_level: open_access checksum: ad5035ad4f7d3b150a252c79884f6a83 content_type: application/octet-stream creator: nbarton date_created: 2023-05-13T09:38:17Z date_updated: 2023-05-13T09:38:17Z file_id: '12951' file_name: p, zA, zD, N=30 neutral III file_size: 181619928 relation: main_file success: 1 - access_level: open_access checksum: 62182a1de796256edd6f4223704312ef content_type: application/octet-stream creator: nbarton date_created: 2023-05-13T09:41:59Z date_updated: 2023-05-13T09:41:59Z file_id: '12952' file_name: p, zA, zD, N=30 neutral IV file_size: 605902074 relation: main_file success: 1 - access_level: open_access checksum: af775dda5c4f6859cb1e5a81ec40a667 content_type: application/octet-stream creator: nbarton date_created: 2023-05-13T09:46:52Z date_updated: 2023-05-13T09:46:52Z file_id: '12953' file_name: p, zA, zD, N=30 selected k=5 file_size: 1018238746 relation: main_file success: 1 - access_level: open_access checksum: af26f3394c387d3ada14b434cd68b1e5 content_type: application/octet-stream creator: nbarton date_created: 2023-05-13T09:42:05Z date_updated: 2023-05-13T09:42:05Z file_id: '12954' file_name: Pairwise F N=30 neutral II file_size: 3197160 relation: main_file success: 1 - access_level: open_access checksum: d5da7dc0e7282dd48222e26d12e34220 content_type: application/octet-stream creator: nbarton date_created: 2023-05-13T09:42:06Z date_updated: 2023-05-13T09:42:06Z file_id: '12955' file_name: Pedigrees N=30 neutral II file_size: 55492 relation: main_file success: 1 - access_level: open_access checksum: 00f386d80677590e29f6235d49cba58d content_type: application/octet-stream creator: nbarton date_created: 2023-05-13T09:46:06Z date_updated: 2023-05-13T09:46:06Z file_id: '12956' file_name: selected reps N=30 selected k=1,2 300 reps III file_size: 474003467 relation: main_file success: 1 - access_level: open_access checksum: 658cef3eaea6136a4d24da4f074191d7 content_type: application/octet-stream creator: nbarton date_created: 2023-05-13T09:46:08Z date_updated: 2023-05-13T09:46:08Z file_id: '12957' file_name: Algorithm for caclulating identities.nb file_size: 121209 relation: main_file success: 1 - access_level: open_access checksum: db9b6dddd7a596d974e25f5e78f5c45c content_type: application/octet-stream creator: nbarton date_created: 2023-05-13T09:46:08Z date_updated: 2023-05-13T09:46:08Z file_id: '12958' file_name: Infinitesimal with dominance.nb file_size: 1803898 relation: main_file success: 1 - access_level: open_access checksum: 91f80a9fb58cae8eef2d8bf59fe30189 content_type: text/plain creator: nbarton date_created: 2023-05-16T04:09:08Z date_updated: 2023-05-16T04:09:08Z file_id: '12967' file_name: ReadMe.txt file_size: 990 relation: main_file success: 1 file_date_updated: 2023-05-16T04:09:08Z has_accepted_license: '1' keyword: - Quantitative genetics - infinitesimal model month: '05' oa: 1 oa_version: Published Version project: - _id: bd6958e0-d553-11ed-ba76-86eba6a76c00 grant_number: '101055327' name: Understanding the evolution of continuous genomes publisher: Institute of Science and Technology Austria related_material: record: - id: '14452' relation: used_in_publication status: public status: public title: The infinitesimal model with dominance tmp: image: /images/cc_by.png legal_code_url: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode name: Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License (CC-BY 4.0) short: CC BY (4.0) type: research_data user_id: 2DF688A6-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87 year: '2023' ...