[{"ddc":["540"],"title":"Adventitious carbon breaks symmetry in oxide contact electrification","abstract":[{"lang":"eng","text":"Insulating oxides are among the most abundant solid materials in the universe1,2,3. Of the many ways in which they influence natural phenomena, perhaps the most consequential is their capacity to transfer electrical charge during contact4,5,6,7,8,9,10—which occurs even between samples of the same oxide—yet the symmetry-breaking parameter that causes this remains unidentified11,12. Here we show that adventitious carbonaceous molecules adsorbed from the environment are the symmetry-breaking factor in same-material oxide contact electrification (CE). We use acoustic levitation to measure charge exchange between a sphere and a plate composed of identical amorphous silicon dioxide (SiO2). Although charging polarity is random for co-prepared samples, we control it with baking or plasma treatment. Observing the charge-exchange relaxation afterwards, we see dynamics over a timescale of hours and connect this directly to the presence of adventitious carbon with time-of-flight mass spectrometry, low-energy ion scattering and infrared spectroscopy. Going further, we confirm that adventitious carbon can even determine charge exchange among different oxides. Our results identify the symmetry-breaking parameter that causes insulating oxides to exchange charge in settings ranging from desert sands4 to volcanic plumes5,6, while simultaneously highlighting an overlooked factor in CE more broadly."}],"ec_funded":1,"status":"public","publication":"Nature","publication_status":"published","article_processing_charge":"Yes (via OA deal)","date_published":"2026-03-18T00:00:00Z","date_updated":"2026-04-28T12:06:01Z","day":"18","oa_version":"Published Version","acknowledged_ssus":[{"_id":"M-Shop"},{"_id":"NanoFab"},{"_id":"ScienComp"},{"_id":"LifeSc"}],"intvolume":"       651","OA_place":"publisher","publication_identifier":{"eissn":["1476-4687"],"issn":["0028-0836"]},"publisher":"Springer Nature","tmp":{"short":"CC BY (4.0)","image":"/images/cc_by.png","name":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License (CC-BY 4.0)","legal_code_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode"},"volume":651,"oa":1,"type":"journal_article","month":"03","external_id":{"pmid":["41851325"]},"page":"626-631","quality_controlled":"1","file":[{"date_updated":"2026-03-24T06:57:08Z","file_size":12245694,"access_level":"open_access","relation":"main_file","success":1,"creator":"dernst","content_type":"application/pdf","date_created":"2026-03-24T06:57:08Z","checksum":"dafef9ed575b44be4263e948a47ae056","file_name":"2026_Nature_Grosjean.pdf","file_id":"21494"}],"pmid":1,"citation":{"ama":"Grosjean GM, Ostermann M, Sauer M, et al. Adventitious carbon breaks symmetry in oxide contact electrification. <i>Nature</i>. 2026;651(8106):626-631. doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-10088-w\">10.1038/s41586-025-10088-w</a>","apa":"Grosjean, G. M., Ostermann, M., Sauer, M., Hahn, M., Pichler, C. M., Fahrnberger, F., … Waitukaitis, S. R. (2026). Adventitious carbon breaks symmetry in oxide contact electrification. <i>Nature</i>. Springer Nature. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-10088-w\">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-10088-w</a>","ieee":"G. M. Grosjean <i>et al.</i>, “Adventitious carbon breaks symmetry in oxide contact electrification,” <i>Nature</i>, vol. 651, no. 8106. Springer Nature, pp. 626–631, 2026.","ista":"Grosjean GM, Ostermann M, Sauer M, Hahn M, Pichler CM, Fahrnberger F, Pertl F, Balazs D, Link MM, Kim SH, Schrader DL, Blanco A, Gracia F, Mujica N, Waitukaitis SR. 2026. Adventitious carbon breaks symmetry in oxide contact electrification. Nature. 651(8106), 626–631.","chicago":"Grosjean, Galien M, Markus Ostermann, Markus Sauer, Michael Hahn, Christian M. Pichler, Florian Fahrnberger, Felix Pertl, et al. “Adventitious Carbon Breaks Symmetry in Oxide Contact Electrification.” <i>Nature</i>. Springer Nature, 2026. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-10088-w\">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-10088-w</a>.","mla":"Grosjean, Galien M., et al. “Adventitious Carbon Breaks Symmetry in Oxide Contact Electrification.” <i>Nature</i>, vol. 651, no. 8106, Springer Nature, 2026, pp. 626–31, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-10088-w\">10.1038/s41586-025-10088-w</a>.","short":"G.M. Grosjean, M. Ostermann, M. Sauer, M. Hahn, C.M. Pichler, F. Fahrnberger, F. Pertl, D. Balazs, M.M. Link, S.H. Kim, D.L. Schrader, A. Blanco, F. Gracia, N. Mujica, S.R. Waitukaitis, Nature 651 (2026) 626–631."},"project":[{"grant_number":"949120","_id":"0aa60e99-070f-11eb-9043-a6de6bdc3afa","call_identifier":"H2020","name":"Tribocharge: a multi-scale approach to an enduring problem in physics"},{"name":"ISTplus - Postdoctoral Fellowships","_id":"260C2330-B435-11E9-9278-68D0E5697425","call_identifier":"H2020","grant_number":"754411"}],"article_type":"original","file_date_updated":"2026-03-24T06:57:08Z","corr_author":"1","OA_type":"hybrid","language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"related_material":{"link":[{"url":"https://ista.ac.at/en/news/colliding-dust-and-the-sparks-of-creation/","description":"News on ISTA website","relation":"press_release"}]},"year":"2026","user_id":"ba8df636-2132-11f1-aed0-ed93e2281fdd","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/","PlanS_conform":"1","department":[{"_id":"ScWa"},{"_id":"GradSch"},{"_id":"LifeSc"}],"date_created":"2026-03-23T15:04:00Z","author":[{"full_name":"Grosjean, Galien M","last_name":"Grosjean","id":"0C5FDA4A-9CF6-11E9-8939-FF05E6697425","orcid":"0000-0001-5154-417X","first_name":"Galien M"},{"first_name":"Markus","full_name":"Ostermann, Markus","last_name":"Ostermann"},{"full_name":"Sauer, Markus","last_name":"Sauer","first_name":"Markus"},{"first_name":"Michael","full_name":"Hahn, Michael","last_name":"Hahn"},{"full_name":"Pichler, Christian M.","last_name":"Pichler","first_name":"Christian M."},{"first_name":"Florian","last_name":"Fahrnberger","full_name":"Fahrnberger, Florian"},{"orcid":"0000-0003-0463-5794","first_name":"Felix","full_name":"Pertl, Felix","last_name":"Pertl","id":"6313aec0-15b2-11ec-abd3-ed67d16139af"},{"first_name":"Daniel","orcid":"0000-0001-7597-043X","last_name":"Balazs","id":"302BADF6-85FC-11EA-9E3B-B9493DDC885E","full_name":"Balazs, Daniel"},{"first_name":"Mason M.","last_name":"Link","full_name":"Link, Mason M."},{"full_name":"Kim, Seong H.","last_name":"Kim","first_name":"Seong H."},{"full_name":"Schrader, Devin L.","last_name":"Schrader","first_name":"Devin L."},{"full_name":"Blanco, Adriana","last_name":"Blanco","first_name":"Adriana"},{"last_name":"Gracia","full_name":"Gracia, Francisco","first_name":"Francisco"},{"last_name":"Mujica","full_name":"Mujica, Nicolás","first_name":"Nicolás"},{"orcid":"0000-0002-2299-3176","first_name":"Scott R","full_name":"Waitukaitis, Scott R","last_name":"Waitukaitis","id":"3A1FFC16-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87"}],"acknowledgement":"This project has received support from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (grant agreement no. 949120) and from the Marie Skłodowska-Curie programme (grant agreement no. 754411). We acknowledge the state of Lower Austria and the European Regional Development Fund under grant no. WST3-F-542638/004-2021. N.M. acknowledges support from grant Fondecyt 1221597. G.G. is a Serra Húnter fellow. This research was supported by the Scientific Service Units of the Institute of Science and Technology Austria through resources provided by the Miba Machine Shop, Nanofabrication Facility, Scientific Computing facility and Lab Support Facility. We thank the Modic group for the use of the Laue camera, T. Zauner for the photography of the experimental set-up and R. Möller for insightful discussions. Open access funding provided by Institute of Science and Technology (IST Austria).","issue":"8106","doi":"10.1038/s41586-025-10088-w","has_accepted_license":"1","_id":"21485"},{"isi":1,"article_number":"e00521","user_id":"2DF688A6-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87","year":"2025","OA_type":"gold","corr_author":"1","file_date_updated":"2025-12-30T09:31:11Z","language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"acknowledgement":"This project received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant agreement No. 949120). This research was supported by the Scientific Service Units of The Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA) through resources provided by the Miba Machine Shop, Nanofabrication Facility, Scientific Computing Facility, and Lab Support Facility. The authors wish to thank Dmytro Rak and Juan Carlos Sobarzo for letting us use their equipment. The authors wish to thank Evgeniia Volobueva for advice in preparing PFIB samples. The authors wish to thank the contributions of the whole Waitukaitis group for useful discussions and feedback.","issue":"19","scopus_import":"1","DOAJ_listed":"1","_id":"20295","doi":"10.1002/admi.202500521","has_accepted_license":"1","PlanS_conform":"1","author":[{"first_name":"Isaac C","orcid":"0000-0002-5010-6984","id":"a550210f-223c-11ec-8182-e2d45e817efb","last_name":"Lenton","full_name":"Lenton, Isaac C"},{"id":"6313aec0-15b2-11ec-abd3-ed67d16139af","last_name":"Pertl","full_name":"Pertl, Felix","first_name":"Felix","orcid":"0000-0003-0463-5794"},{"last_name":"Shafeek","id":"3CD37A82-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87","full_name":"Shafeek, Lubuna B","first_name":"Lubuna B","orcid":"0000-0001-7180-6050"},{"first_name":"Scott R","orcid":"0000-0002-2299-3176","last_name":"Waitukaitis","id":"3A1FFC16-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87","full_name":"Waitukaitis, Scott R"}],"department":[{"_id":"ScWa"},{"_id":"NanoFab"}],"date_created":"2025-09-07T22:01:33Z","status":"public","publication_status":"published","publication":"Advanced Materials Interfaces","day":"01","date_updated":"2025-12-30T09:31:25Z","acknowledged_ssus":[{"_id":"M-Shop"},{"_id":"NanoFab"},{"_id":"ScienComp"},{"_id":"LifeSc"}],"oa_version":"Published Version","date_published":"2025-10-01T00:00:00Z","article_processing_charge":"Yes","ddc":["530"],"title":"A duality between surface charge and work function in scanning Kelvin probe microscopy","ec_funded":1,"arxiv":1,"abstract":[{"text":"Scanning Kelvin probe microscopy (SKPM) is a powerful technique for macroscopic imaging of the electrostatic potential above a surface. Though most often used to image work-function variations of conductive surfaces, it can also be used to probe the surface charge on insulating surfaces. In both cases, relating the measured potential to the underlying signal is non-trivial. Here, general relationships are derived between the measured SKPM voltage and the underlying source, revealing either can be cast as a convolution with an appropriately scaled point spread function (PSF). For charge that exists on a thin insulating layer above a conductor, the PSF has the same shape as what would occur from a work-function variation alone, differing by a simple scaling factor. This relationship is confirmed by: (1) backing it out from finite-element simulations of work-function and charge signals, and (2) experimentally comparing the measured PSF from a small work-function target to that from a small charge spot. This scaling factor is further validated by comparing SKPM charge measurements with Faraday cup measurements for highly charged samples from contact-charging experiments. These results highlight a heretofore unappreciated connection between SKPM voltage and charge signals, offering a rigorous recipe to extract either from experimental data.","lang":"eng"}],"file":[{"file_id":"20908","file_name":"2025_AdvMaterialsInterfaces_Lenton.pdf","checksum":"906fcc7733be8ce8a83600427b82cd5a","date_created":"2025-12-30T09:31:11Z","content_type":"application/pdf","creator":"dernst","success":1,"relation":"main_file","access_level":"open_access","file_size":1830117,"date_updated":"2025-12-30T09:31:11Z"}],"citation":{"mla":"Lenton, Isaac C., et al. “A Duality between Surface Charge and Work Function in Scanning Kelvin Probe Microscopy.” <i>Advanced Materials Interfaces</i>, vol. 12, no. 19, e00521, Wiley, 2025, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202500521\">10.1002/admi.202500521</a>.","short":"I.C. Lenton, F. Pertl, L.B. Shafeek, S.R. Waitukaitis, Advanced Materials Interfaces 12 (2025).","ieee":"I. C. Lenton, F. Pertl, L. B. Shafeek, and S. R. Waitukaitis, “A duality between surface charge and work function in scanning Kelvin probe microscopy,” <i>Advanced Materials Interfaces</i>, vol. 12, no. 19. Wiley, 2025.","ista":"Lenton IC, Pertl F, Shafeek LB, Waitukaitis SR. 2025. A duality between surface charge and work function in scanning Kelvin probe microscopy. Advanced Materials Interfaces. 12(19), e00521.","chicago":"Lenton, Isaac C, Felix Pertl, Lubuna B Shafeek, and Scott R Waitukaitis. “A Duality between Surface Charge and Work Function in Scanning Kelvin Probe Microscopy.” <i>Advanced Materials Interfaces</i>. Wiley, 2025. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202500521\">https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202500521</a>.","apa":"Lenton, I. C., Pertl, F., Shafeek, L. B., &#38; Waitukaitis, S. R. (2025). A duality between surface charge and work function in scanning Kelvin probe microscopy. <i>Advanced Materials Interfaces</i>. Wiley. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202500521\">https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202500521</a>","ama":"Lenton IC, Pertl F, Shafeek LB, Waitukaitis SR. A duality between surface charge and work function in scanning Kelvin probe microscopy. <i>Advanced Materials Interfaces</i>. 2025;12(19). doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1002/admi.202500521\">10.1002/admi.202500521</a>"},"project":[{"call_identifier":"H2020","_id":"0aa60e99-070f-11eb-9043-a6de6bdc3afa","grant_number":"949120","name":"Tribocharge: a multi-scale approach to an enduring problem in physics"}],"article_type":"original","publisher":"Wiley","tmp":{"short":"CC BY (4.0)","image":"/images/cc_by.png","name":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License (CC-BY 4.0)","legal_code_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode"},"oa":1,"volume":12,"OA_place":"publisher","intvolume":"        12","publication_identifier":{"eissn":["2196-7350"]},"quality_controlled":"1","external_id":{"arxiv":["2506.07187"],"isi":["001560163400001"]},"month":"10","type":"journal_article"},{"type":"journal_article","month":"09","external_id":{"arxiv":["2502.12718"],"isi":["001587263900003"]},"quality_controlled":"1","OA_place":"publisher","intvolume":"       135","publication_identifier":{"eissn":["1079-7114"],"issn":["0031-9007"]},"tmp":{"short":"CC BY (4.0)","image":"/images/cc_by.png","name":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License (CC-BY 4.0)","legal_code_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode"},"volume":135,"publisher":"American Physical Society","oa":1,"project":[{"_id":"0aa60e99-070f-11eb-9043-a6de6bdc3afa","call_identifier":"H2020","grant_number":"949120","name":"Tribocharge: a multi-scale approach to an enduring problem in physics"}],"article_type":"original","file":[{"checksum":"7e45e89b8db0b7f01e63185c68e4b0f9","file_name":"2025_PhysReviewLetters_Pertl.pdf","file_id":"20522","creator":"dernst","content_type":"application/pdf","date_created":"2025-10-23T09:32:31Z","relation":"main_file","success":1,"date_updated":"2025-10-23T09:32:31Z","file_size":1692251,"access_level":"open_access"}],"citation":{"ieee":"F. Pertl, I. C. Lenton, T. Cramer, and S. R. Waitukaitis, “No time for surface charge: How bulk conductivity hides charge patterns from Kelvin probe force microscopy in contact-electrified surfaces,” <i>Physical Review Letters</i>, vol. 135, no. 14. American Physical Society, 2025.","chicago":"Pertl, Felix, Isaac C Lenton, Tobias Cramer, and Scott R Waitukaitis. “No Time for Surface Charge: How Bulk Conductivity Hides Charge Patterns from Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy in Contact-Electrified Surfaces.” <i>Physical Review Letters</i>. American Physical Society, 2025. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1103/lcsm-xxty\">https://doi.org/10.1103/lcsm-xxty</a>.","ista":"Pertl F, Lenton IC, Cramer T, Waitukaitis SR. 2025. No time for surface charge: How bulk conductivity hides charge patterns from Kelvin probe force microscopy in contact-electrified surfaces. Physical Review Letters. 135(14), 146202.","mla":"Pertl, Felix, et al. “No Time for Surface Charge: How Bulk Conductivity Hides Charge Patterns from Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy in Contact-Electrified Surfaces.” <i>Physical Review Letters</i>, vol. 135, no. 14, 146202, American Physical Society, 2025, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1103/lcsm-xxty\">10.1103/lcsm-xxty</a>.","short":"F. Pertl, I.C. Lenton, T. Cramer, S.R. Waitukaitis, Physical Review Letters 135 (2025).","ama":"Pertl F, Lenton IC, Cramer T, Waitukaitis SR. No time for surface charge: How bulk conductivity hides charge patterns from Kelvin probe force microscopy in contact-electrified surfaces. <i>Physical Review Letters</i>. 2025;135(14). doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1103/lcsm-xxty\">10.1103/lcsm-xxty</a>","apa":"Pertl, F., Lenton, I. C., Cramer, T., &#38; Waitukaitis, S. R. (2025). No time for surface charge: How bulk conductivity hides charge patterns from Kelvin probe force microscopy in contact-electrified surfaces. <i>Physical Review Letters</i>. American Physical Society. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1103/lcsm-xxty\">https://doi.org/10.1103/lcsm-xxty</a>"},"arxiv":1,"abstract":[{"text":"Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) is widely used in stationary and dynamic studies of contact electrification. An obvious question that connects these two has been overlooked: when are charge dynamics too fast for stationary studies to be meaningful? Using a rapid transfer system to quickly perform KPFM after contact, we find the dynamics are too fast in all but the best insulators. Our data further suggest that dynamics are caused by bulk as opposed to surface conductivity, and that charge-transfer heterogeneity is less prevalent than previously suggested.","lang":"eng"}],"ec_funded":1,"ddc":["530"],"title":"No time for surface charge: How bulk conductivity hides charge patterns from Kelvin probe force microscopy in contact-electrified surfaces","date_published":"2025-09-30T00:00:00Z","article_processing_charge":"Yes (via OA deal)","date_updated":"2025-12-01T14:57:53Z","day":"30","acknowledged_ssus":[{"_id":"M-Shop"},{"_id":"NanoFab"},{"_id":"LifeSc"}],"oa_version":"Published Version","status":"public","publication":"Physical Review Letters","publication_status":"published","department":[{"_id":"ScWa"}],"date_created":"2025-10-16T13:13:29Z","author":[{"full_name":"Pertl, Felix","last_name":"Pertl","id":"6313aec0-15b2-11ec-abd3-ed67d16139af","orcid":"0000-0003-0463-5794","first_name":"Felix"},{"full_name":"Lenton, Isaac C","id":"a550210f-223c-11ec-8182-e2d45e817efb","last_name":"Lenton","orcid":"0000-0002-5010-6984","first_name":"Isaac C"},{"last_name":"Cramer","full_name":"Cramer, Tobias","first_name":"Tobias"},{"last_name":"Waitukaitis","id":"3A1FFC16-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87","full_name":"Waitukaitis, Scott R","first_name":"Scott R","orcid":"0000-0002-2299-3176"}],"PlanS_conform":"1","doi":"10.1103/lcsm-xxty","has_accepted_license":"1","_id":"20481","scopus_import":"1","acknowledgement":"This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant agreement No. 949120). This research was supported by the Scientific Service Units of The Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA) through resources provided by the Miba Machine Shop, the Nanofabrication Facility and Lab Support Facility.","issue":"14","language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"file_date_updated":"2025-10-23T09:32:31Z","corr_author":"1","OA_type":"hybrid","related_material":{"record":[{"status":"public","id":"20523","relation":"research_data"}]},"year":"2025","isi":1,"article_number":"146202","user_id":"2DF688A6-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87"},{"author":[{"orcid":"0000-0003-0463-5794","first_name":"Felix","full_name":"Pertl, Felix","id":"6313aec0-15b2-11ec-abd3-ed67d16139af","last_name":"Pertl"}],"department":[{"_id":"ScWa"}],"month":"02","date_created":"2025-10-23T09:34:58Z","type":"research_data_reference","tmp":{"short":"CC BY (4.0)","image":"/images/cc_by.png","name":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License (CC-BY 4.0)","legal_code_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode"},"publisher":"Zenodo","oa":1,"OA_place":"repository","_id":"20523","has_accepted_license":"1","doi":"10.5281/ZENODO.14888054","project":[{"name":"Tribocharge: a multi-scale approach to an enduring problem in physics","_id":"0aa60e99-070f-11eb-9043-a6de6bdc3afa","call_identifier":"H2020","grant_number":"949120"}],"citation":{"ista":"Pertl F. 2025. No Time for Surface Charge: How Bulk Conductivity Hides Charge Patterns from Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy in Contact-Electrified Surfaces, Zenodo, <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.14888054\">10.5281/ZENODO.14888054</a>.","chicago":"Pertl, Felix. “No Time for Surface Charge: How Bulk Conductivity Hides Charge Patterns from Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy in Contact-Electrified Surfaces.” Zenodo, 2025. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.14888054\">https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.14888054</a>.","ieee":"F. Pertl, “No Time for Surface Charge: How Bulk Conductivity Hides Charge Patterns from Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy in Contact-Electrified Surfaces.” Zenodo, 2025.","short":"F. Pertl, (2025).","mla":"Pertl, Felix. <i>No Time for Surface Charge: How Bulk Conductivity Hides Charge Patterns from Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy in Contact-Electrified Surfaces</i>. Zenodo, 2025, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.14888054\">10.5281/ZENODO.14888054</a>.","ama":"Pertl F. No Time for Surface Charge: How Bulk Conductivity Hides Charge Patterns from Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy in Contact-Electrified Surfaces. 2025. doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.14888054\">10.5281/ZENODO.14888054</a>","apa":"Pertl, F. (2025). No Time for Surface Charge: How Bulk Conductivity Hides Charge Patterns from Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy in Contact-Electrified Surfaces. Zenodo. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.14888054\">https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.14888054</a>"},"ec_funded":1,"main_file_link":[{"open_access":"1","url":"https://doi.org/10.5281/ZENODO.14888054"}],"abstract":[{"text":"Includes all data and Python code needed to reproduce figures for the publication: No Time for Surface Charge: How Bulk Conductivity Hides Charge Patterns from Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy in Contact-Electrified Surfaces.","lang":"eng"}],"ddc":["530"],"title":"No Time for Surface Charge: How Bulk Conductivity Hides Charge Patterns from Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy in Contact-Electrified Surfaces","OA_type":"green","corr_author":"1","day":"18","date_updated":"2025-12-01T14:57:52Z","user_id":"2DF688A6-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87","oa_version":"Published Version","date_published":"2025-02-18T00:00:00Z","year":"2025","article_processing_charge":"No","related_material":{"record":[{"status":"public","id":"20481","relation":"used_in_publication"}]},"status":"public"},{"citation":{"ieee":"J. C. A. Sobarzo Ponce <i>et al.</i>, “Spontaneous ordering of identical materials into a triboelectric series,” <i>Nature</i>, vol. 638, no. 8051. Springer Nature, 2025.","ista":"Sobarzo Ponce JCA, Pertl F, Balazs D, Costanzo T, Sauer M, Foelske A, Ostermann M, Pichler CM, Wang Y, Nagata Y, Bonn M, Waitukaitis SR. 2025. Spontaneous ordering of identical materials into a triboelectric series. Nature. 638(8051), 664–669.","chicago":"Sobarzo Ponce, Juan Carlos A, Felix Pertl, Daniel Balazs, Tommaso Costanzo, Markus Sauer, Annette Foelske, Markus Ostermann, et al. “Spontaneous Ordering of Identical Materials into a Triboelectric Series.” <i>Nature</i>. Springer Nature, 2025. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08530-6\">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08530-6</a>.","mla":"Sobarzo Ponce, Juan Carlos A., et al. “Spontaneous Ordering of Identical Materials into a Triboelectric Series.” <i>Nature</i>, vol. 638, no. 8051, 664–669, Springer Nature, 2025, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08530-6\">10.1038/s41586-024-08530-6</a>.","short":"J.C.A. Sobarzo Ponce, F. Pertl, D. Balazs, T. Costanzo, M. Sauer, A. Foelske, M. Ostermann, C.M. Pichler, Y. Wang, Y. Nagata, M. Bonn, S.R. Waitukaitis, Nature 638 (2025).","ama":"Sobarzo Ponce JCA, Pertl F, Balazs D, et al. Spontaneous ordering of identical materials into a triboelectric series. <i>Nature</i>. 2025;638(8051). doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08530-6\">10.1038/s41586-024-08530-6</a>","apa":"Sobarzo Ponce, J. C. A., Pertl, F., Balazs, D., Costanzo, T., Sauer, M., Foelske, A., … Waitukaitis, S. R. (2025). Spontaneous ordering of identical materials into a triboelectric series. <i>Nature</i>. Springer Nature. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08530-6\">https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-08530-6</a>"},"pmid":1,"file":[{"file_id":"19289","checksum":"fecf302274dd3218d3e7dd22f39a6c0c","file_name":"2025_Nature_Sobarzo.pdf","date_created":"2025-03-04T10:05:18Z","content_type":"application/pdf","creator":"dernst","success":1,"relation":"main_file","access_level":"open_access","file_size":3807415,"date_updated":"2025-03-04T10:05:18Z"}],"article_type":"original","project":[{"name":"Tribocharge: a multi-scale approach to an enduring problem in physics","_id":"0aa60e99-070f-11eb-9043-a6de6bdc3afa","grant_number":"949120","call_identifier":"H2020"}],"publication_identifier":{"issn":["0028-0836"],"eissn":["1476-4687"]},"intvolume":"       638","OA_place":"publisher","publisher":"Springer Nature","tmp":{"short":"CC BY (4.0)","image":"/images/cc_by.png","name":"Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Public License (CC-BY 4.0)","legal_code_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode"},"volume":638,"oa":1,"external_id":{"isi":["001428076100015"],"pmid":["39972227"]},"type":"journal_article","month":"02","quality_controlled":"1","status":"public","publication":"Nature","publication_status":"published","date_published":"2025-02-20T00:00:00Z","article_processing_charge":"Yes (via OA deal)","acknowledged_ssus":[{"_id":"M-Shop"},{"_id":"NanoFab"},{"_id":"ScienComp"},{"_id":"EM-Fac"},{"_id":"LifeSc"}],"oa_version":"Published Version","date_updated":"2026-07-29T13:11:24Z","day":"20","title":"Spontaneous ordering of identical materials into a triboelectric series","ddc":["530"],"abstract":[{"text":"When two insulating, neutral materials are contacted and separated, they exchange electrical charge1. Experiments have long suggested that this ‘contact electrification’ is transitive, with different materials ordering into ‘triboelectric series’ based on the sign of charge acquired2. At the same time, the effect is plagued by unpredictability, preventing consensus on the mechanism and casting doubt on the rhyme and reason that series imply3. Here we expose an unanticipated connection between the unpredictability and order in contact electrification: nominally identical materials initially exchange charge randomly and intransitively, but—over repeated experiments—order into triboelectric series. We find that this evolution is driven by the act of contact itself—samples with more contacts in their history charge negatively to ones with fewer contacts. Capturing this ‘contact bias’ in a minimal model, we recreate both the initial randomness and ultimate order in numerical simulations and use it experimentally to force the appearance of a triboelectric series of our choosing. With a set of surface-sensitive techniques to search for the underlying alterations contact creates, we only find evidence of nanoscale morphological changes, pointing to a mechanism strongly coupled with mechanics. Our results highlight the centrality of contact history in contact electrification and suggest that focusing on the unpredictability that has long plagued the effect may hold the key to understanding it.","lang":"eng"}],"ec_funded":1,"scopus_import":"1","issue":"8051","acknowledgement":"This project has received financing from the European Research Council grant agreement no. 949120 under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme. The Analytical Instrumentation Center of the TU Wien acknowledges support by the FFG project ‘ELSA’ under grant no. 884672. C.M.P. and M.O. acknowledge the state of Lower Austria and the European Regional Development Fund under grant no. WST3-F-542638/004-2021. This research was supported by the Scientific Service Units of the Institute of Science and Technology Austria through resources provided by the Miba Machine Shop, Nanofabrication Facility, Scientific Computing facility, Electron Microscopy Facility and Lab Support Facility. We thank J. Garcia-Suarez and G. Anciaux for the suggestion to look into the roughness power spectral density. We thank I.-M. Strugaru for help with testing the device for Young’s modulus measurements. Open access funding provided by Institute of Science and Technology (IST Austria).","has_accepted_license":"1","doi":"10.1038/s41586-024-08530-6","_id":"19278","date_created":"2025-03-02T23:01:52Z","department":[{"_id":"ScWa"},{"_id":"LifeSc"},{"_id":"EM-Fac"}],"author":[{"first_name":"Juan Carlos A","full_name":"Sobarzo Ponce, Juan Carlos A","id":"4B807D68-AE37-11E9-AC72-31CAE5697425","last_name":"Sobarzo Ponce"},{"first_name":"Felix","orcid":"0000-0003-0463-5794","last_name":"Pertl","id":"6313aec0-15b2-11ec-abd3-ed67d16139af","full_name":"Pertl, Felix"},{"last_name":"Balazs","id":"302BADF6-85FC-11EA-9E3B-B9493DDC885E","full_name":"Balazs, Daniel","first_name":"Daniel","orcid":"0000-0001-7597-043X"},{"last_name":"Costanzo","id":"D93824F4-D9BA-11E9-BB12-F207E6697425","full_name":"Costanzo, Tommaso","first_name":"Tommaso","orcid":"0000-0001-9732-3815"},{"first_name":"Markus","full_name":"Sauer, Markus","last_name":"Sauer"},{"full_name":"Foelske, Annette","last_name":"Foelske","first_name":"Annette"},{"first_name":"Markus","full_name":"Ostermann, Markus","last_name":"Ostermann"},{"full_name":"Pichler, Christian M.","last_name":"Pichler","first_name":"Christian M."},{"first_name":"Yongkang","last_name":"Wang","full_name":"Wang, Yongkang"},{"full_name":"Nagata, Yuki","last_name":"Nagata","first_name":"Yuki"},{"first_name":"Mischa","full_name":"Bonn, Mischa","last_name":"Bonn"},{"first_name":"Scott R","orcid":"0000-0002-2299-3176","id":"3A1FFC16-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87","last_name":"Waitukaitis","full_name":"Waitukaitis, Scott R"}],"year":"2025","related_material":{"link":[{"relation":"press_release","description":"News on ISTA website","url":"https://ista.ac.at/en/news/an-electrifying-turn-in-an-age-old-quest/"}],"record":[{"status":"public","relation":"dissertation_contains","id":"20203"}]},"user_id":"ba8df636-2132-11f1-aed0-ed93e2281fdd","isi":1,"article_number":"664-669","file_date_updated":"2025-03-04T10:05:18Z","OA_type":"hybrid","corr_author":"1","language":[{"iso":"eng"}]},{"type":"journal_article","month":"07","external_id":{"isi":["001281681100003"]},"quality_controlled":"1","publication_identifier":{"eissn":["1089-7550"],"issn":["0021-8979"]},"intvolume":"       136","oa":1,"tmp":{"name":"Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)","legal_code_url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/legalcode","short":"CC BY-NC-ND (4.0)","image":"/images/cc_by_nc_nd.png"},"volume":136,"publisher":"AIP Publishing","article_type":"original","project":[{"_id":"0aa60e99-070f-11eb-9043-a6de6bdc3afa","call_identifier":"H2020","grant_number":"949120","name":"Tribocharge: a multi-scale approach to an enduring problem in physics"}],"citation":{"chicago":"Lenton, Isaac C, Felix Pertl, Lubuna B Shafeek, and Scott R Waitukaitis. “Beyond the Blur: Using Experimentally Determined Point Spread Functions to Improve Scanning Kelvin Probe Imaging.” <i>Journal of Applied Physics</i>. AIP Publishing, 2024. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0215151\">https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0215151</a>.","ista":"Lenton IC, Pertl F, Shafeek LB, Waitukaitis SR. 2024. Beyond the blur: Using experimentally determined point spread functions to improve scanning Kelvin probe imaging. Journal of Applied Physics. 136(4), 045305.","ieee":"I. C. Lenton, F. Pertl, L. B. Shafeek, and S. R. Waitukaitis, “Beyond the blur: Using experimentally determined point spread functions to improve scanning Kelvin probe imaging,” <i>Journal of Applied Physics</i>, vol. 136, no. 4. AIP Publishing, 2024.","short":"I.C. Lenton, F. Pertl, L.B. Shafeek, S.R. Waitukaitis, Journal of Applied Physics 136 (2024).","mla":"Lenton, Isaac C., et al. “Beyond the Blur: Using Experimentally Determined Point Spread Functions to Improve Scanning Kelvin Probe Imaging.” <i>Journal of Applied Physics</i>, vol. 136, no. 4, 045305, AIP Publishing, 2024, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0215151\">10.1063/5.0215151</a>.","ama":"Lenton IC, Pertl F, Shafeek LB, Waitukaitis SR. Beyond the blur: Using experimentally determined point spread functions to improve scanning Kelvin probe imaging. <i>Journal of Applied Physics</i>. 2024;136(4). doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0215151\">10.1063/5.0215151</a>","apa":"Lenton, I. C., Pertl, F., Shafeek, L. B., &#38; Waitukaitis, S. R. (2024). Beyond the blur: Using experimentally determined point spread functions to improve scanning Kelvin probe imaging. <i>Journal of Applied Physics</i>. AIP Publishing. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0215151\">https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0215151</a>"},"file":[{"file_size":2537502,"access_level":"open_access","date_updated":"2024-08-05T08:19:58Z","relation":"main_file","success":1,"creator":"dernst","content_type":"application/pdf","date_created":"2024-08-05T08:19:58Z","checksum":"6141d05cd68d540a7446dce9490975db","file_name":"2024_JourApplPhysics_Lenton.pdf","file_id":"17386"}],"abstract":[{"text":"Scanning Kelvin probe microscopy (SKPM) is a powerful technique for investigating the electrostatic properties of material surfaces, enabling the imaging of variations in work function, topology, surface charge density, or combinations thereof. Regardless of the underlying signal source, SKPM results in a voltage image, which is spatially distorted due to the finite size of the probe, long-range electrostatic interactions, mechanical and electrical noise, and the finite response time of the electronics. In order to recover the underlying signal, it is necessary to deconvolve the measurement with an appropriate point spread function (PSF) that accounts the aforementioned distortions, but determining this PSF is difficult. Here, we describe how such PSFs can be determined experimentally and show how they can be used to recover the underlying information of interest. We first consider the physical principles that enable SKPM and discuss how these affect the system PSF. We then show how one can experimentally measure PSFs by looking at well-defined features, and that these compare well to simulated PSFs, provided scans are performed extremely slowly and carefully. Next, we work at realistic scan speeds and show that the idealized PSFs fail to capture temporal distortions in the scan direction. While simulating PSFs for these situations would be quite challenging, we show that measuring PSFs with similar scan conditions works well. Our approach clarifies the basic principles and inherent challenges to SKPM measurements and gives practical methods to improve results.","lang":"eng"}],"ec_funded":1,"title":"Beyond the blur: Using experimentally determined point spread functions to improve scanning Kelvin probe imaging","ddc":["530"],"article_processing_charge":"No","date_published":"2024-07-28T00:00:00Z","acknowledged_ssus":[{"_id":"M-Shop"},{"_id":"NanoFab"},{"_id":"LifeSc"},{"_id":"ScienComp"}],"oa_version":"Published Version","day":"28","date_updated":"2025-09-08T08:47:42Z","publication":"Journal of Applied Physics","status":"public","publication_status":"published","department":[{"_id":"ScWa"},{"_id":"NanoFab"}],"date_created":"2024-08-04T22:01:21Z","author":[{"orcid":"0000-0002-5010-6984","first_name":"Isaac C","full_name":"Lenton, Isaac C","id":"a550210f-223c-11ec-8182-e2d45e817efb","last_name":"Lenton"},{"orcid":"0000-0003-0463-5794","first_name":"Felix","full_name":"Pertl, Felix","last_name":"Pertl","id":"6313aec0-15b2-11ec-abd3-ed67d16139af"},{"first_name":"Lubuna B","orcid":"0000-0001-7180-6050","last_name":"Shafeek","id":"3CD37A82-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87","full_name":"Shafeek, Lubuna B"},{"first_name":"Scott R","orcid":"0000-0002-2299-3176","last_name":"Waitukaitis","id":"3A1FFC16-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87","full_name":"Waitukaitis, Scott R"}],"doi":"10.1063/5.0215151","has_accepted_license":"1","_id":"17373","scopus_import":"1","issue":"4","acknowledgement":"This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (Grant Agreement No. 949120). This research was supported by the Scientific Service Units of the Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA) through resources provided by the Miba Machine Shop, Nanofabrication Facility, Scientific Computing Facility, and Lab Support Facility. The authors wish to thank Dmytro Rak and Juan Carlos Sobarzo for letting us use their equipment. The authors wish to thank the contributions of the whole Waitukaitis Group for useful discussions and feedback.","language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"file_date_updated":"2024-08-05T08:19:58Z","corr_author":"1","year":"2024","user_id":"317138e5-6ab7-11ef-aa6d-ffef3953e345","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/","article_number":"045305","isi":1},{"related_material":{"record":[{"id":"20203","relation":"dissertation_contains","status":"public"}]},"year":"2022","article_number":"125605","isi":1,"user_id":"4359f0d1-fa6c-11eb-b949-802e58b17ae8","main_file_link":[{"url":" https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2209.01889","open_access":"1"}],"language":[{"iso":"eng"}],"corr_author":"1","doi":"10.1103/PhysRevMaterials.6.125605","_id":"12109","scopus_import":"1","acknowledgement":"This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant Agreement\r\nNo. 949120). This research was supported by the Scientific Service Units of the Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA) through resources provided by the Miba Machine\r\nShop, the Nanofabrication Facility, and the Scientific Computing Facility. We thank F. Stumpf from Park Systems for useful discussions and support with scanning probe microscopy.\r\nF.P. and J.C.S. contributed equally to this work.","issue":"12","department":[{"_id":"ScWa"},{"_id":"NanoFab"}],"date_created":"2023-01-08T23:00:53Z","author":[{"id":"6313aec0-15b2-11ec-abd3-ed67d16139af","last_name":"Pertl","full_name":"Pertl, Felix","first_name":"Felix","orcid":"0000-0003-0463-5794"},{"first_name":"Juan Carlos A","last_name":"Sobarzo Ponce","id":"4B807D68-AE37-11E9-AC72-31CAE5697425","full_name":"Sobarzo Ponce, Juan Carlos A"},{"first_name":"Lubuna B","orcid":"0000-0001-7180-6050","last_name":"Shafeek","id":"3CD37A82-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87","full_name":"Shafeek, Lubuna B"},{"full_name":"Cramer, Tobias","last_name":"Cramer","first_name":"Tobias"},{"last_name":"Waitukaitis","id":"3A1FFC16-F248-11E8-B48F-1D18A9856A87","full_name":"Waitukaitis, Scott R","first_name":"Scott R","orcid":"0000-0002-2299-3176"}],"article_processing_charge":"No","date_published":"2022-12-29T00:00:00Z","date_updated":"2026-07-29T13:11:24Z","day":"29","oa_version":"Preprint","acknowledged_ssus":[{"_id":"M-Shop"},{"_id":"NanoFab"},{"_id":"ScienComp"}],"publication_status":"published","publication":"Physical Review Materials","status":"public","arxiv":1,"abstract":[{"lang":"eng","text":"Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM) is a powerful tool for studying contact electrification (CE) at the nanoscale, but converting KPFM voltage maps to charge density maps is nontrivial due to long-range forces and complex system geometry. Here we present a strategy using finite-element method (FEM) simulations to determine the Green's function of the KPFM probe/insulator/ground system, which allows us to quantitatively extract surface charge. Testing our approach with synthetic data, we find that accounting for the atomic force microscope (AFM) tip, cone, and cantilever is necessary to recover a known input and that existing methods lead to gross miscalculation or even the incorrect sign of the underlying charge. Applying it to experimental data, we demonstrate its capacity to extract realistic surface charge densities and fine details from contact-charged surfaces. Our method gives a straightforward recipe to convert qualitative KPFM voltage data into quantitative charge data over a range of experimental conditions, enabling quantitative CE at the nanoscale."}],"ec_funded":1,"title":"Quantifying nanoscale charge density features of contact-charged surfaces with an FEM/KPFM-hybrid approach","project":[{"call_identifier":"H2020","grant_number":"949120","_id":"0aa60e99-070f-11eb-9043-a6de6bdc3afa","name":"Tribocharge: a multi-scale approach to an enduring problem in physics"}],"article_type":"original","citation":{"ieee":"F. Pertl, J. C. A. Sobarzo Ponce, L. B. Shafeek, T. Cramer, and S. R. Waitukaitis, “Quantifying nanoscale charge density features of contact-charged surfaces with an FEM/KPFM-hybrid approach,” <i>Physical Review Materials</i>, vol. 6, no. 12. American Physical Society, 2022.","chicago":"Pertl, Felix, Juan Carlos A Sobarzo Ponce, Lubuna B Shafeek, Tobias Cramer, and Scott R Waitukaitis. “Quantifying Nanoscale Charge Density Features of Contact-Charged Surfaces with an FEM/KPFM-Hybrid Approach.” <i>Physical Review Materials</i>. American Physical Society, 2022. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevMaterials.6.125605\">https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevMaterials.6.125605</a>.","ista":"Pertl F, Sobarzo Ponce JCA, Shafeek LB, Cramer T, Waitukaitis SR. 2022. Quantifying nanoscale charge density features of contact-charged surfaces with an FEM/KPFM-hybrid approach. Physical Review Materials. 6(12), 125605.","mla":"Pertl, Felix, et al. “Quantifying Nanoscale Charge Density Features of Contact-Charged Surfaces with an FEM/KPFM-Hybrid Approach.” <i>Physical Review Materials</i>, vol. 6, no. 12, 125605, American Physical Society, 2022, doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevMaterials.6.125605\">10.1103/PhysRevMaterials.6.125605</a>.","short":"F. Pertl, J.C.A. Sobarzo Ponce, L.B. Shafeek, T. Cramer, S.R. Waitukaitis, Physical Review Materials 6 (2022).","ama":"Pertl F, Sobarzo Ponce JCA, Shafeek LB, Cramer T, Waitukaitis SR. Quantifying nanoscale charge density features of contact-charged surfaces with an FEM/KPFM-hybrid approach. <i>Physical Review Materials</i>. 2022;6(12). doi:<a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevMaterials.6.125605\">10.1103/PhysRevMaterials.6.125605</a>","apa":"Pertl, F., Sobarzo Ponce, J. C. A., Shafeek, L. B., Cramer, T., &#38; Waitukaitis, S. R. (2022). Quantifying nanoscale charge density features of contact-charged surfaces with an FEM/KPFM-hybrid approach. <i>Physical Review Materials</i>. American Physical Society. <a href=\"https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevMaterials.6.125605\">https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevMaterials.6.125605</a>"},"type":"journal_article","external_id":{"isi":["000908384800001"],"arxiv":["2209.01889"]},"month":"12","quality_controlled":"1","intvolume":"         6","publication_identifier":{"eissn":["2475-9953"]},"oa":1,"volume":6,"publisher":"American Physical Society"}]